The Pharaohs – the first ever complete history

‘This concept of divine kingship was distinctive to Egypt. The rulers of Mesopotamia and Mycenae might boast genealogies showing their descent from gods, or be credited with superhuman prowess, but they were still mortal. The pharaoh of Egypt was a god in his own right.’

From the splendour of its monuments to the drama of its history, the wonders of ancient Egypt continue to fire the imagination. Key to this glorious legacy is the dynasty of god-kings that ruled there for 3,000 years. As George Hart writes, ‘It is impossible – and, indeed, would be misguided – to separate this vision of a great civilisation from the figure of the pharaoh himself.’ The faces of the pharaohs are familiar: engraved on the colossal statues at Abu Simbel, immortalised in golden grave-goods and on painted sarcophagi. Yet what stories lie behind the cartouches and immobile features? Who were the men – and women – who ruled the greatest and longest-lived of ancient civilisations?

While there have been numerous histories that examine individual rulers or focus on particular periods, there has never been a definitive history of all the pharaohs of Egypt. The Folio Society commissioned George Hart, expert and author of several books on ancient Egypt, to carry out this monumental task.

'One can imagine the pride in the heart of Ramesses II on the summer’s day that he rode in his chariot from the fortress of Tjaru on the Egyptian border at the head of an army of twenty thousand troops …’

VOLUME 1: Kingdom to Empire

The first pharaoh was Narmer, who united Upper and Lower Egypt around 2900 BC. He adopted many of the symbols that would be associated with his successors for millennia to come, and was considered to be a manifestation of the god Horus. A new capital, Memphis, was founded at the apex of the Nile Delta, and the hieroglyphic writing system that had developed enabled a new bureaucracy. The word ‘pharaoh’ came from the term ‘per ao’ meaning ‘great house’, and the early pharaohs of the Old Kingdom left their most famous legacy in the step pyramids, forerunners of the Great Pyramid built at Giza by Khufu in around 2500 BC and the Great Sphinx built by his son, Khafra. Egyptian foreign influence and domination reached its apogee in the New Kingdom, between 1500 and 1000 BC – an era notable for its high-ranking queens, including Hatshepsut and Nefertiti.

VOLUME 2: Dominion to Conquest

The New Kingdom faced threats, both internal and external. The Hittites of Asia Minor proved a dangerous foreign power, while at home the growing prestige of the priests of Amun-Ra threatened to rival that of the pharaohs. Sety I and Ramesses II attempted to bolster Egypt’s power through their wars and building programmes, including the temple at Abu Simbel. Egypt’s fortunes waxed and waned, with civil war and invasion interspersed with brief periods of stability, such as the rule of Ramesses III and the ‘Black Pharaohs’ of Nubia. Then came Persian invaders from the East, before Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC. Welcomed as a liberator, he sacrificed the Apis Bull and was named ‘Son of Ra’ – in other words, a pharaoh. After Alexander’s death, his general Ptolemy was crowned king in 304 BC. This Macedonian soldier was the founder of Egypt’s last pharaonic dynasty, which would end 300 years later with the defeat and suicide of Cleopatra VII.

An in-depth and compelling narrative that transports us to royal palaces, temples and tombs

Drawing on a lifetime of research, Hart has produced a magnificent history beginning with Narmer, the first king of a united Egypt, and ending with Cleopatra VII, whose death left Egypt a province of the Roman Empire. Every pharaoh is included, from the most famous to the so-called ‘ephemeral’ kings who left behind nothing but their names. The cruel Akhthoes, supposedly killed by a crocodile; Ramesses III, whose queen plotted to assassinate him; the great ‘warrior pharaoh’ Sneferu, who expanded his empire, built the first true pyramid and exploited the turquoise mines of Sinai: these rulers are brought before us in a brilliantly detailed and revealing account.

Their dynasties were glorified by great building projects, and cemented by frequent brother–sister marriages sanctioned by the example of the gods Isis and Osiris. Central to the pharaoh’s power was his identification with a particular god, such as the falcon-god Horus, or the sun-god Ra. Elaborate embalming rituals promised immortality for the pharaoh, who was buried with funerary boats and furniture to equip him in the afterlife. When Nebka ordered the adulterous wife of one of his priests to be executed by burning, he was ensuring that for her, there would be no life after death.

Combining the latest archaeological data with historical records, delving into hieroglyphic inscriptions and reassessing later accounts, Hart has written a gripping story that touches on every aspect of ancient Egyptian history. The evidence is fascinating: funerary treasures speak of far-flung networks of trade from Greece to Asia Minor; inscriptions on stelae record military victories and temple dedications; spectacular monuments hold clues to everything from taxes to social structure. Perhaps most surprising is the number of papyrus scrolls that survive, providing insights into the world of the pharaohs and everyday palace life.

The precious and enduring legacy of Egypt

As well as examining the history of ancient Egypt, Hart explores its legacy – from the Roman world up to the present day. The power of the pharaohs had been so great, and their rule so long, that they acquired a semi-legendary status in the eyes of posterity. The tomb of the third pharaoh, Djer, was so enormous that the complex was mistaken for that of the god Osiris himself. Successive crowds of ancient Egyptian pilgrims buried the tomb beneath votive pottery and, later still, Arab settlers named the site ‘Mother of Pots’. Even 5,000 years after they were built, as Hart says, the monuments of the pharaohs ‘can still leave us gasping in wonder’. It is not surprising that the only wonder of the ancient world still in existence, the Great Pyramid at Giza, was built by the pharaohs.

Gorgeously illustrated with dozens of spectacular photographs

The artefacts of ancient Egypt are scattered throughout the museums of the world, from London to Cairo. This 2-volume set brings together exquisite photographs from around the world, not only of famous objects, temples and tombs, but of lesser-known pieces of jewellery, paintings, papyrus scrolls and relief sculpture. 25 pages of colour plates in each volume evoke the splendour of Egyptian culture, depicting everything from hippopotamus hunts to Nubian troops in battle dress. The bust of Nefertiti, famously called ‘the ultimate symbol of female beauty’ is pictured, but so is an intimate family scene of Nefertiti and Akhenaten with three of their daughters. In their physical appearance Rahotep and Nofret of the Fourth Dynasty could be mistaken for a modern Egyptian couple. Alongside the colossal, iconic statues of Ramesses II – symbols of Egypt’s golden age – are revealing depictions of foreign conquerors, including Alexander as an Egyptian pharaoh at the Temple of Luxor.